Confucianism A Chinese religious and philsophical system. Confucius, who lived in the sixth century B.C., was its founder. Confucian teachings stress self-cultivation and the development of virtue. Considerable attention is given to the correct ordering of society and the proper relationship of human beings within it. Confucians regard the Five Classics as authoritative texts. The most famous of these in the West is the divinatory book called the I Ching.

Creation Myths and Cosmologies Virtually all faiths incorporate some teaching about the origins of the universe. These traditions vary widely. Often a creator god is invoked, but in other instances the world is seen as arising from an act of procreation by gods or primordial forces. Some religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, regard creation as a cyclical process: our universe is only one in a countless stream of worlds that have existed over the eons.

Divination Foretelling or obtaining guidance for the future using some interpretation of a random act: flipping a coin is the most obvious example. Other systems are considerably more elaborate. The Tarot, a deck of 78 cards probably invented in fifteenth-century Italy, is widely favored today, as is the I Ching, an ancient Chinese oracle interpreting the throw of coins or yarrow stalks. The Tibetan Mo oracle casts fortunes by interpreting the throw of dice. But nearly everything imaginable has been used for divination at one point or another, including the flight patterns of birds and lines chosen at random from a sacred text.

Gnosticism A Christian religious system holding that gnosis, or spiritual illumination, is the key to salvation. Gnosticism flourished in the Roman Empire in the first through the fourth centuries A.D. One of its chief teachings is that the physical world is the creation of a second-rate deity known as the Demiurge (from a Greek word meaning "craftsman") and that the true, benevolent God is hidden from ordinary humans. Gnosis is the key to reaching this hidden God. The early Gnostic sects were denounced as heretical by the mainstream Church and died out in the early centuries of the Common Era, but Gnostic impulses have reappeared throughout history: the medieval Bogomils and Cathars are two examples. The twentieth century has also seen a Gnostic revival; today some small churches and sects identify themselves as Gnostic.

Healing Arts Western medicine is only one of innumerable systems of healing developed throughout the ages. Some of these, like shamanism, seek to help the sick through intervention with the spirits or gods. Others are simply different approaches to the technology of healing. Chinese acupuncture, for example, seeks to restore health by regulating the flow of life energy, known as chi. Diet, herbs, and stimulation with thin needles are used for this purpose. Qi Gong or chi kung is another means of regulating internal energy; physical movement is the chief method used.

Hinduism The dominant religion of India, Hinduism has a broad variety of forms, ranging from simple folk practices to abstruse metaphysical systems. Hindus regard the sacred texts known as the Vedas (composed around 1500 B.C.) as central to their tradition. While acknowledging many Gods, Hindus believe in one supreme God who creates and sustains the universe. There are numerous Hindu deities that serve as manifestations of this supreme God, but the three most important are Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer and lord of all yogis. Ritual and devotional practices are widespread, as are meditative practices. The supreme goal of Hindu aspiration is moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth and death, which, it is said, all beings will attain in one lifetime or another. About 80 % of India’s one billion people are Hindus, while another 30 million Hindus are scattered across the globe.

Jainism A religion of India, probably founded by Vardhamana Mahavira in the sixth century B.C. Jains teach that all forms of life possess a soul substance called jiva. As a result Jain teachings strongly emphasize nonviolence to all living things. Jainism has always placed a strong focus on asceticism and on nonattachment to the material body. Today there are some 4 million Jains, nearly all of whom live in India.

Martial Arts Throughout history people have tried to increase their capacity for attack and defense by building strength and agility. Martial arts are one means of doing this. In most forms, the individual’s reflexes are trained to a point of extremely high responsiveness. Martial arts like karate, jujitsu, and Aikido chiefly use the body itself as a weapon, but other forms include swords, sticks, and other weapons. Most martial arts contain a strong ethical component to prevent practitioners from abusing their powers.

Mysticism A tendency present in all religions to seek direct experience of the divine. Prayer, meditation, and other practices are used to attain this end.

Native Religions: Africa Africa’s 700 million people are divided into 3,000 tribes, with almost as many languages and dialects. Traditional African religion is equally diverse. But most include the concept of a high god or creator god as well as many other deities and spirits that can help or hurt human beings. Rituals are practiced to appease gods or ancestral spirits. Rites also mark incidents in the yearly cycle and such human transitions as birth, marriage, and death. Healing and divination are also widely practiced in a religious context.

Native Religions: Asia All the major world religions have their origins on the Asian continent. So in a sense nearly everyone is a practitioner of a native Asian religion. In addition to these world faiths, however, some tribes in Central and Southeast Asia practice indigenous shamanistic religions. Shinto is a native Japanese religion that still remains very much alive despite a widespread Buddhist presence in Japan. Like many other indigenous faiths, it centers around belief in spirits, which can help or hurt humans. Lifecycle and seasonal rites are also practiced.

Native Religions: Australia, New Zealand, and Polynesia Like many indigenous peoples around the world, the Native tribes of Oceania do not draw a sharp distinction between the religious and the secular realms. Humans are part of a larger whole, which include supernatural beings as well as animals and plants. Ritual practices are used to help maintain the cosmic order as well as to assure health, prosperity, and an adequate food supply.

Native Religions: Europe The ancient religions of Europe were more or less completely subsumed by Christianity in the first millennium C.E. They have chiefly survived in folk beliefs and practices. With the weakening of Christianity in the twentieth century, however, Pagan traditions have seen a revival in most European nations. Gods from ancient pantheons are worshipped, and there is an attempt to return to rites and practices of old. Many Pagan revivals are inspired by a nationalistic impulse.

Native Religions: Latin America Although Latin America is predominantly Roman Catholic, Native religions continue to be practiced by a number of tribes, chiefly isolated groups such as those in the Amazon rain forest. Religions are diverse, but focus on maintaining close and intimate contact with the spirits of the plants and animals upon whom these cultures depend. Some Latin American religions, such as Voudun (Voodoo) and Santería, are not native to the region but were imported from Africa by blacks who continued to practice their original faiths. Many of these have incorporated elements of Roman Catholicism.

Native Religions: North America American Indian religions are complex and diverse, as each of the hundreds of tribes has its own distinct system of belief and practice. Generally, however, Native Americans venerate a wide range of spirits, which are often regarded as powers of nature. A cardinal tenet of American Indian religion is that respect is owed not only to divine forces and other humans but to plants, animals, and the whole natural realm as well. Many American Indian traditions hold that an individual needs to seek out his or her own vision, which will indicate how that person can best serve the community.

Paganism The name Pagan (from a Latin word meaning "rustic") was applied by Christians in ancient times to those who worshipped the Greek and Roman gods. Today it has come to mean any religion that worships a number of gods (a teaching known as polytheism). The modern West has seen an attempt to revive ancient Pagan religions. Modern Paganism (or Neopaganism, as it is sometimes called) is a colorful and individualistic faith, relying heavily on occult teachings and practices. Many modern Pagans venerate the Goddess, a female manifestation of divinity that is traced to Neolithic times. Wicca or Witchcraft is a form of Neopaganism. Its practitioners say that this is a continuation of the "Old Religion" that prevailed in Europe before Christianity. They do not worship Satan or the Devil of the Christian tradition.

Shamanism A religious phenomenon chiefly found in indigenous cultures. Practitioners, known as shamans, enter altered states of consciousness. There they are believed to have contact with spirits, who give them advice about such matters as healing, hunting, and human relations. Shamanism is found worldwide, in locations as far-flung as North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. But there is no organized worldwide shamanic religion. Practices and teachings vary greatly from tribe to tribe. The term shamanism is the creation of anthropologists. Some modern teachers carry out shamanic practices in a Western context.

Sikhism A religion founded in the Punjab region of north India by Guru Nanak (1469-1539 A.D.). Guru Nanak preached the need for devotional love to a formless God. Sikhs revere a lineage of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Gurus and possess a strong sense of identity symbolized by the beards and turbans worn by Sikh men. There are about 16 million Sikhs worldwide, most of them Punjabis.

Reincarnation The belief that the human soul takes another life on earth after death. Reincarnation is an integral part of the beliefs of Asian religions like Hinduism and Buddhism. But it is also found in the West. Greek philosophers such as Plato and Pythagoras taught this doctrine, and it has been espoused in esoteric forms of Judaism and Christianity as well. Belief in reincarnation has increased greatly in the U.S. over the last generation, chiefly as a result of popularized Eastern religions.

Taoism A religious and philosophical system of China. Lao Tsu, who lived in the fifth century B.C., is regarded as its founder. Its primary text is the Tao Te Ching. Living in accord with the Tao, the supreme force underlying the universe, is the principal goal of the teaching. Many Taoists engage in various forms of physical, dietary, and meditative practice as a means of bringing themselves in harmony with the universe. Feng shui, an increasingly popular means of harmonizing architecture and landscaping, is based on Taoist principles.